The Assiniboine Tribe was one of the most dominant tribes of the northern Great Plains. They were a founding member of the Iron Confederacy, a military and economic alliance among a handful of powerful tribes that was as resilient as its name suggests.
They were one of the many Plains Indian Tribes that originated in the eastern regions of Canada around Hudson’s Bay and migrated west around the 17th century to the region around present-day Montana and Saskatchewan.
In this article, discover the complete history of the Assiniboine Tribe. Discover their eventful story, from their origins near Hudson Bay to their relocation in the 19th century to reservations and everything in between.
Table of contents:
- Quick facts
- Origins
- Adaptation to life on the Great Plains
- Allies & enemies
- Notable battles
- Increased trade with European settlers & fur traders
- Iron Confederacy
- Decline
- Current status
- Preservation of Assiniboine language & culture
Quick answers
Below we summarize the main points regarding the Assiniboine tribe’s history, what they are known for, the challenges they have faced throughout their history, and the historical significance of the tribe in North American history.
1. Who are the Assiniboine Tribe and where did they originally come from?
The Assiniboine Tribe, renowned for their nomadic lifestyle, bison hunting, and prominent role in the fur trade, originally hailed from the northern woodlands near the Hudson Bay. Migrating westward in the 17th century due to expanding European settlements and threats from neighboring tribes, they migrated and adapted to life on the northern Great Plains.
2. What is the historical significance of the Assiniboine Tribe in North American history?
The Assiniboine Tribe significantly shaped North American history, emerging as a pivotal force on the American frontier. Their acquisition of horses transformed them into formidable hunters and warriors, while their strategic role in the fur trade established them as key economic and militaristic players, bridging indigenous and European networks and influencing the dynamics of power and trade across the continent.
3. What are some of the major challenges faced by the Assiniboine Tribe throughout history?
Throughout history, the Assiniboine Tribe faced many challenges, including threats from armed Ojibwe and European settlers pushing them to the Great Plains. On the Great Plains, they clashed with the Blackfeet Tribe, becoming major rivals. Additionally, they struggled with devastating smallpox outbreaks, significant land loss, and forced relocation to reservations, where their hardships persisted.
Chapter 1: Origins
The Assiniboine tribe’s origins trace back to the dense forests and vast waterways around the Hudson Bay area in eastern Canada, a region that shaped their early way of life. As a people deeply connected to their environment, the Assiniboine initially engaged in fishing, hunting, and gathering, utilizing the abundant resources of their homeland to sustain their communities. The dense woodlands and rivers provided not just sustenance but also a cultural and spiritual foundation for the tribe.
Life for the Assiniboine began to change significantly in the 17th century when the French established a presence in North America. The Europeans’ arrival marked the beginning of a new era, particularly when the French provided arms to the Ojibwe tribe. The Ojibwe, equipped with new weaponry, posed a formidable threat to the Assiniboine, who found themselves at a disadvantage.
Moreover, the encroachment of European settlers further disrupted the Assiniboine way of life. The settlers’ expansion into Assiniboine territories pressured the tribe to seek new hunting grounds and maintain their autonomy. This pressure was not just about physical survival but also about preserving their cultural identity and way of life in the face of external threats.
Consequently, the Assiniboine split from their parent Sioux tribe in the mid-17th century and began migrating north and west, moving from their traditional lands to the expansive northern Great Plains. The northern Great Plains offered vast herds of bison and new opportunities, yet it also introduced the Assiniboine to new challenges and adversaries, including the Blackfeet Tribe.
Chapter 2: Adaption to life on the Great Plains
The Assiniboine’s journey westward led them to the expansive northern Great Plains where they settled in the present-day regions of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Alberta in Canada, as well as Montana and North Dakota in the United States.
Upon settling in these areas, the Assiniboine encountered a drastically different environment from that of their origins. The Great Plains were characterized by wide-open spaces and rolling grasslands, a stark contrast to the wooded areas around Hudson Bay.
This new territory required a shift in lifestyle, especially in terms of sustenance and shelter. The Assiniboine embraced the bison-centric economy of the Plains. The bison not only became their primary food source but also a central element of their culture, providing materials for clothing, shelter, and tools.
The tribe’s social structure and daily activities evolved to align with the rhythms of the bison herds. They became skilled horsemen, which was a crucial adaptation for following and hunting bison across the vast prairies. The introduction of horses in the 18th century revolutionized their hunting techniques, allowing for more efficient pursuits and the ability to transport larger quantities of goods and supplies via travois.
Living in the open plains also influenced the Assiniboine’s form of shelter. They adopted the tipi, a portable dwelling perfectly suited to their nomadic lifestyle. Tipis, made from bison hides and easily collapsible wooden frames, allowed for quick movement in sync with the migratory patterns of the bison herds and the changing seasons.
This period of adaptation not only reshaped their daily lives but also solidified the Assiniboine’s identity as a powerful and influential tribe within the northern Great Plains.
Lifestyle, culture, traditions, norms
The Assiniboine tribe’s lifestyle and culture were deeply rooted in their social structure, traditions, and spirituality. Their society was organized into bands led by respected leaders, often distinguished by their wisdom, bravery, and generosity.
Within this structure, roles were clearly defined by gender, with men primarily responsible for hunting and warfare, while women took charge of domestic duties, including preparing food, crafting clothing from animal hides, and maintaining the tipis.
Women in the Assiniboine tribe held significant influence within their families and the wider community, especially in matters of the household and the education of children. Men, on the other hand, were tasked with providing for the tribe and its protection, skills that were honed from a young age.
Learn more: Unveiling the Assiniboine tribe – Lifestyle, tradition, & culture
Arts and crafts flourished among the Assiniboine, with beadwork, quillwork, and hide painting being particularly notable for their intricate designs and cultural symbolism.
Mythology played a crucial role in explaining the world around them, with stories like that of Itkome, a spider-like creature. One tale featuring Itkome tells how he created the earth from dirt delivered to him by a muskrat, highlighting the tribe’s deep connection to nature and the animal kingdom.
Spiritual practices were central to Assiniboine life, with the Sun Dance being one of the most important ceremonies. This ritual, involving dancing, fasting, and personal sacrifice, was a means of seeking visions, healing, and communal renewal. The Sun Dance symbolized a deep connection to the spiritual realm and reinforced the tribe’s bond with the sun.
Growth – Horses, trade, raiding
A pivotal moment in the Assiniboine’s growth was the acquisition of horses in the late 18th century. Horses revolutionized their way of life, particularly in how they hunted bison.
Before horses, the Assiniboine relied on dog travois—a sled-like structure pulled by dogs—to transport their belongings from camp to camp. This method was efficient for their previous nomadic lifestyle but limited their mobility and the amount they could carry.
The introduction of horses dramatically expanded their hunting capabilities and overall mobility. Horses allowed the Assiniboine to chase down bison herds more effectively, significantly increasing their success in hunts and enabling them to follow the herds across vast distances. This not only ensured a stable food supply but also provided materials for clothing, shelter, and trade.
The Assiniboine also engaged in horse stealing and raids, practices that not only demonstrated their prowess and strategic senses but also enhanced their status and strength among the Plains tribes. These raids were not merely acts of aggression but were deeply embedded in the social fabric of the region, serving as a means of asserting dominance.
Additionally, the Assiniboine capitalized on their position as a middleman in the fur trade. By serving as intermediaries between European traders and other Indigenous tribes, they leveraged their geographical location and diplomatic skills to amass wealth and influence via the fur trade.
This role in the fur trade not only bolstered their economy but also elevated their status among both European settlers and neighboring tribes. Sometime before the mid-17th century, the Assiniboine formed the Iron Confederacy with other regional tribes, such as the Cree, Salteaux, and Metis, which served as a dominant political and military force in the region for over a century.
Chapter 3: Allies and enemies
The majority of the Assiniboine tribe’s enemies and allies resulted from their affiliation with the Iron Confederacy.
Below, we list the Assiniboine’s primary allies and enemies.
Who were the Assiniboine’s enemies?
The Assinboine’s primary enemies included the Blackfeet, Shoshone, Crow, Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne. The Assiniboine even attacked European-American settlers, asserting their dominance on the Plains.
Who were the allies of the Assiniboine?
The Assiniboine’s primary allies included the Stoney, Cree, Saulteaux, Métis, and Iroquois. Other tribes that were loosely affiliated with the Assiniboine for military protection included the Bitterroot Salish, Kutenai, Sekani, Secwepemc, and Nez Perce, Gros Ventre.
The Assinibione’s allies primarily consisted of fellow members of the Iron Confederacy, a military and economic alliance that mediated trade between European traders and Indigenous tribes.
Chapter 4: Notable battles involving the Assiniboine
The Assiniboine Tribe participated in several notable battles throughout their history. These conflicts, often arising from territorial disputes, alliances, and trade rivalries, highlight their power and strength.
Here are five notable battles involving the Assiniboine:
- Battle of the Belly River (1870). This was the last major conflict between the Blackfeet and the Cree, who were allied with the Assiniboine, marking the last significant battle between First Nations in Canada.
- Cypress Hills Massacre (1873). Although not a battle in the traditional sense, this event saw the Assiniboine suffer greatly at the hands of American bison and wolf hunters, which pushed the Canadian government to establish the Northwest Mounted Police more quickly than they otherwise would have.
- Battle of Cut Knife (1885). On May 2, 1885, Canadian forces attacked a Cree and Assiniboine settlement near Battleford, Saskatchewan. Despite the Canadian army’s efforts, First Nations fighters repelled the attack, resulting in major losses on both sides.
Chapter 5: Increased trade with European settlers & fur traders
The Assiniboine’s significant role in the fur trade was not coincidental but a result of their considerable power, extensive presence across vast territories, and a generally peaceful approach towards European settlers.
This demeanor enabled the Assiniboine to cultivate strong, influential relationships with European traders, positioning themselves as essential intermediaries who facilitated trade between Europeans and other Indigenous tribes.
The tribe’s strategic location allowed them to control the flow of goods and information between European traders and the interior tribes of the Great Plains. This control not only increased their wealth and resources but also solidified their status as a dominant force in the region.
The Assiniboine are known for playing a key role in the trade conducted at Fort Union Trading Post. Established in 1828 near present-day Williston, North Dakota, on the present-day North Dakota-Montana border, Fort Union became a central hub for the fur trade in the Upper Missouri River area.
The Assiniboine, through their alliance and trade with the fort’s operators, gained access to European goods, including firearms, metal tools, and cloth. Through the burgeoning relationship between the tribe and the fort’s operators, family members of the fort’s staff even married tribe members.
At this time, the Assiniboine was a primary member of the Iron Confederacy, a powerful alliance of Plains tribes that included the Cree, Saulteaux, and others. This confederacy, strengthened by mutual interests in trade and defense, extended the Assiniboine’s influence.
Chapter 6: Iron Confederacy
The Assiniboine were central to the Iron Confederacy, or NÄ“hiyaw-Pwat, a coalition of northern Plains Indian nations active from the 17th century until the late 1800s. This alliance, including the Assiniboine, Stoney, Cree, Saulteaux, Métis, and some Iroquois, played a key role in the fur trade with the Hudson’s Bay Company, establishing the Assiniboine and Cree as vital intermediaries in the Great Plains trade networks.
The Confederacy also provided military protection and ensured safe bison hunting grounds, countering threats from the Blackfoot and other non-aligned tribes like the Shoshone and Crow.
However, the decline of the fur trade and the bison herds, vital to the Confederacy’s livelihood, led to its downfall. This economic blow, combined with conflicts such as the North-West Rebellion, marked the end of the Iron Confederacy’s dominance on the plains.
Chapter 7: Decline
The Assiniboine Tribe faced a significant decline in power and population starting in the late 19th century, due to several critical factors.
The fur trade, once a cornerstone of their economy and influence within the Iron Confederacy, began to wane, deeply impacting their economic foundation and status. Additionally, the introduction of European diseases, notably smallpox, devastated their communities, leading to a dramatic decrease in population.
Throughout the late 19th century, the Assiniboine lost vast expanses of their ancestral lands through treaties they signed with the federal government.
Smallpox
The Assiniboine tribe was severely impacted by smallpox, a European disease to which they had no immunity. Cultural beliefs led them to confront the disease directly, as they thought showing fear would only empower the illness. This approach, unfortunately, resulted in widespread exposure and infection.
Before the arrival of smallpox in the late 1700s, the Assiniboine stood at roughly 10,000 people. A century later, smallpox had reduced their population to a couple thousand. The devastating reduction in their numbers marked a significant decline in their community’s size and strength.
Decimation of bison populations
The decline of the Assiniboine tribe was significantly influenced by the decimation of bison populations as well, a pivotal source of their sustenance, culture, and economy.
This catastrophic event was driven by multiple factors, including indiscriminate hunting, the commercial value of the bison, and the government’s endorsement of mass bison slaughter as a means of undermining the indigenous tribe’s way of life.
Indiscriminate hunting
European settlers engaged in the indiscriminate killing of bison, hunting them not for sustenance but for economic gain, focusing on skins and tongues while leaving the carcasses to decay. This practice, coupled with the bison’s natural behavior of gathering around fallen members, allowed hunters to easily decimate entire herds.
Commercial value of the bison
The commercial value of bison, especially for their fur and leather, incentivized overhunting. Over 1.5 million buffalo were transported eastward in a single winter season for their valuable hides, used in manufacturing and military supplies. This hunting was not only for profit but also strategically used by figures like General Winfield Scott Hancock to make Indigenous peoples dependent on settlers by eliminating their primary food source.
Government sanctioned decimation
The US Army and federal government explicitly endorsed the mass slaughter of bison to force Native American peoples onto reservations and to starve them into submission or force them to assimilate.
High-ranking officials, including General William Tecumseh Sherman and Lieutenant General John M. Schofield, advocated for the eradication of bison as a strategic measure against Native populations.
The government’s stance was clear in its refusal to implement protections for the bison, viewing their extinction as a tool for the assimilation of Indigenous peoples into settler agricultural lifestyles. This calculated destruction of the bison herds was a deliberate act of ecological warfare aimed at undermining the livelihoods of Plains Indigenous communities.
Land loss
The impact of the bison’s decline on the Assiniboine was profound, affecting every aspect of their existence from nutrition to social structure, and their capacity for resistance.
Facing starvation and the loss of their economic foundation, the Assiniboine, along with many other Plains tribes, were coerced into treaty negotiations with the government.
These treaties often resulted in the relinquishment of vast territories and the movement of tribes onto designated reservations. This shift marked a significant transition in the Assiniboine way of life, confining them to limited areas and fundamentally altering their traditional nomadic lifestyle centered around bison hunting.
Treaties that led to present-day reservations for the Assiniboine
The formation of the Fort Peck and Fort Belknap Indian Reservations was a complex process influenced by numerous treaties and executive orders, reflecting the tumultuous relationship between the Assiniboine tribe, other Native American groups, and the U.S. government.
We list the major treaties and executive orders that formed the Fort Peck and Fort Belknap Indian Reservations below:
- Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. This treaty was foundational, recognizing the territories of various tribes, including the Assiniboine, and allowed for the construction of roads and forts on Native land, spurred by the Gold Rush and westward expansion.
- Judith River/Lame Bull Treaty of 1855. This treaty further defined hunting rights and territories, signifying the Assiniboine’s ongoing negotiation for land and resources.
- Sioux Wars of 1862. These wars marked a period of intense conflict and displacement, fueled by broken treaties and encroachment on traditional lands. The establishment of military forts and the negotiation of treaties with “friendly” Sioux bands underscored the U.S. strategy of divide and control.
- President Grant’s Executive Order of 1873. This executive order created an undivided reservation for the Blackfeet, Gros Ventre, Assiniboine, and Sioux, which was a significant acknowledgment of tribal sovereignty.
- President Grant’s Executive Order of 1874. This executive order further shrunk native lands established by his executive order the year before.
- 1886 Treaty (name unknown). A treaty was signed between the Native American tribes and the government to set the boundaries of the Fort Peck Reservation. This reservation was formed from an area that had previously been designated for several tribes through an Executive Order by President Grant in 1874.
- Sweetgrass Hills Treaty/Agreement of 1887. A negotiation led to the surrender of 17.5 million acres (7 million ha) of land to the US Government, with the remaining 6 million acres (2.5 million ha) being divided into three distinct reservations: Blackfeet, Fort Belknap, and Fort Peck Indian Reservations. This arrangement marked a significant moment in the Assiniboine’s history, formalizing the reservation boundaries but also signifying a loss of vast ancestral lands.Â
- Congressional Act in 1889. This congressional Act ceded more land from the Fort Peck Reservation, reducing it to its present-day size.
Chapter 8: Current status
Today, the Assiniboine reside primarily on reservations in Montana and Saskatchewan. In Montana, they share the Fort Peck Reservation with the Sioux and the Fort Belknap Reservation with the Gros Ventre.
In Saskatchewan, tribal members live on the Carry The Kettle Nakoda First Nation and other reserves.
Fort Peck Indian Reservation
The Fort Peck Indian Reservation spans over 2 million acres (810,000 ha) in the rolling prairies of northeast Montana. It’s home to the Assiniboine and Sioux tribes.Â
Political structure
The Fort Peck Indian Reservation operates under a tribal government system, with the Fort Peck Tribal Executive Board acting as the governing body, overseeing the administration of various programs and services for the community.
Economy
The reservation’s economy is diversified, with key economic activities including agriculture, ranching, and small-scale enterprises. The Fort Peck Tribes own and operate several businesses, such as Fort Peck Tech Services, which provides welding, fabrication, waterjet, machining, and various other services.
Tourism
Top tourist activities are centered around outdoor activities, including fishing in the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, as well as local cultural festivities like the Red Bottom Celebration, Fort Kipp Celebration, and Poplar Indian Days.
For Belknap Indian Reservation
The Fort Belknap Indian Reservation occupies over 600,000 acres (240,000 ha) of the rolling prairie of northern Montana, just west of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation. It is a vibrant community home to the Gros Ventre and Assiniboine tribes.Â
Political structure
The Fort Belknap Indian Community Council oversees the reservation, led by a President and Vice President elected for four-year terms. Additionally, eight Council Members, split evenly between four Gros Ventres and four Assiniboine representatives, are elected biennially.
A Secretary Treasurer, appointed by the President and Vice President, also serves a four-year term, contributing to the governance structure.
Economy
The local economy is supported by a mix of traditional and contemporary economic activities, with the reservation’s main industries revolving around ranching, alfalfa hay production, and dry land farming.
Tribally owned businesses on the Fort Belknap Reservation include the Red Paint Creek Trading Post and the Fort Belknap Community Economic Development Corporation, a public nonprofit organization.
Tourism
The tribe’s annual celebrations include Lodgepole Pow Wow, Milk River Indian Days, and Hays Pow Wow.
Chapter 9: Preservation of Assiniboine language and culture in modern times
Like many Native American languages, the Assiniboine language is threatened by extinction. Today several hundred speakers of the Assiniboine language remain across Montana and Saskatchewan.
Various tribal figures are fighting to preserve the Assiniboine language and culture. For example, Fort Peck’s Language and Culture Department offers tribal members various classes for people of all ages to immerse themselves in their traditional culture, hone their language skills, and regain a sense of their tribal identity.
Fort Peck’s Langauge and Culture Department’s classes include summer immersion camps, community classes, and food classes, as well as suicide prevention programs and mental health services. Thousands of community members have joined these programs.
Through concerted efforts, the Assiniboine people on the Fort Peck and Fort Belknap Indian Reservations are actively working to help tribal members reconnect with their tribal heritage, help them gain agency over their lives, and become leaders of tomorrow.
