One of the most dominant forces on the western frontier, the Sioux Tribe left a deep and wide footprint in the history of the Great Plains. Known for their bravery, courage, and excellent horsemanship, they were feared by many.
The Sioux trace their origins to the Lake Superior region near present-day Minnesota and Wisconsin. Here, they lived a semi-nomadic lifestyle and resided in more stationary homes, unlike the tipis of the Great Plains.
It wasn’t until the 18th century that the Sioux tribe migrated west and established dominance over the northern Great Plains around present-day Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Wyoming.
In this article, we summarize each phase of the Sioux Tribe’s history, from their ancient origins to today.
Table of contents:
- Origins
- Encounters with European influence
- Westward expansion
- Culture of the Sioux Tribe
- Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851
- Dakota War of 1862
- Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868
- Continued wars
- Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)
- Assimilation
- Returning Native American rights (1930s – 1960s)
- Legal battles of the 20th century
- Current status of the Sioux Tribe
Chapter 1: Origins
Known as Dakota, Lakota, and historically Nakota, the Sioux were deeply entrenched in the Central Mississippi Valley region more than 10,000 years ago until conflicts with the neighboring Ojibwe and Iroquois Tribes pushed them northwards to Minnesota and Wisconsin.
Archaeological evidence points to this movement occurring shortly before 800 AD, as marked by their association with the distinctive cultural artifacts of the Woodland Blackduck-Kathio-Clam River Continuum. The Sioux made this Lake Superior region their home for millennia before the arrival of European settlers.
During this formative era, they established a hunter-gatherer economy, integrating agriculture into their lifestyle following the introduction of maize from Mesoamerica, and continued to hunt game, such as deer and bison.
They built canoes from which they fished in the abundant lakes and complemented their diet with a variety of roots and other vegetables, such as beans, squash, corn, and pumpkin. Their dwellings were reflective of the environment in which they lived and their semi-nomadic lifestyle.
During the warmer months, the tribe lived in a summer lodge—a rectangular structure composed of peeled logs and enveloped in sheets of cedar or elm bark. In winter, they commonly lived in structures made of bark, grass, or reed-covered saplings.
Cultural shift
By approximately 1300 AD, the Sioux experienced a significant cultural shift in which they adopted the societal structure known as the Seven Council Fires, composed of seven tribes, all related to one another through their Siouan language family.
Various tribes, such as the Mandan, Omaha, Oto, Quapawof, and Hidatsa, all formed various alliances with the original seven tribes, becoming known as Dakota in the eastern dialect, Lakota in the western dialect, and the Nakota in the central dialect.
Prior to the arrival of French explorers from the north during the 17th century, the Sioux peoples expanded their territories, venturing westward and southward from their established homelands within the regions of Minnesota and Wisconsin.
This period brought significant shifts. The Sioux became adept in horsemanship and the use of European firearms, leading to their inclusion in what scholars term the “Horse Culture” of North America, a transformative era enhancing their mobility and hunting prowess.
Chapter 2: Encounters with European influence (17th century)
The late 17th century and early 18th century heralded a pivotal moment for the Sioux Tribe’s history as they encountered European fur traders, predominantly the French, who ventured into their territory in search of lucrative fur resources. This was also the time when they received their anglicized name “Sioux”.
The name “Sioux”
During the westward movement of French fur traders, the Dakota stopped the intruders, informing the French of the tribe’s territorial boundaries. In an attempt to identify this tribe that had stopped them, the French traders consulted with members of the Ojibwe tribe, who referred to the Dakota as “natowessiwak”.
“Natowessiwak”, which originally meant “people of the snake-like river” (the Mississippi), was misunderstood by the French as “the snake people”. The French later adapted this designation and pluralized it with their customary suffix “-oux”, leading to the term “Nadouessioux” or “little snakes”.
Over time, the name further shrunk to “Sioux”, by which they are widely known today.
Contact with Europeans
The Sioux’s encounter with the French was the beginning of many interactions with Europeans that would dramatically alter the socio-economic fabric of Sioux society. The fur trade was initially an opportunity for economic exchange.
However, French influence penetrated the traditional Sioux way of life and changed the course of Sioux history, not only through goods and weaponry but also through alliances.
The Dakota’s initial alliance with French traders for access to European goods created tension with the Ojibwe, allies to the Dakota’s enemies. This discord escalated into war by the 1730s, culminating in Dakota territorial losses.
Such intertribal warfare also posed significant risks to European fur traders, impacting trade relations until the French ceded their North American territories in 1763.
Chapter 3: Westward expansion (18th century)
Before the mid-17th century, the Lakota people, one division of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, were located east of the Red River, living at the edge of prairies in Minnesota and the eastern Dakotas.
Their society drastically changed with the acquisition of horses around 1700. The Lakota then significantly adapted their culture to embrace a nomadic lifestyle, centralizing their economy and sustenance around the bison, which thrived across the vast prairies.
The Lakota, along with most of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, began migrating west, changing the course of the Sioux Tribe’s history.
Arrival of the horse
The introduction of horses in the 18th century brought about a seismic shift in Sioux culture, economy, and warfare. The horse, revered as “Šunka Wakan” or “sacred dog,” rapidly became central to their way of life on the Great Plains.
It allowed for greater mobility, enhanced hunting capabilities, and reshaped tribal warfare. The Sioux quickly became expert horsemen, and the new mode of transport helped them expand their territory and influence.
Migration west
By the 1720s, the Lakota were migrating west from Minnesota’s edge and the eastern Dakotas to prairies east of the Missouri River. Bison hunting became not merely a means of survival but a core lifestyle. Horses enhanced their mobility and efficiency, and the Lakota increasingly depended on bison for meat, which also provided materials for clothing, shelter, and tools.
As bison hunting on horseback became prevalent, pivotal cultural ceremonies like the Sun Dance emerged during large summer gatherings, which also served as a time for political decision-making and war planning.
The Lakota started transitioning to smaller bands for the seasonal hunt, and by the early 18th century, they had split into different sects, ultimately crossing the Missouri River. The Lakota defeated the Cheyenne for the Black Hills in 1776 and expanded their territory. They forged alliances with the Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho to combat other tribes for dominion, particularly along the highly coveted Missouri River.
These alliances and conflicts evolved as the Lakota expanded into what is now Montana. By the mid-19th century, the Lakota had asserted themselves as a dominant force on the Plains, demonstrating their might through significant victories over rival tribes.
Chapter 4: Culture of the Sioux Tribe
In the life of the Sioux, their spiritual practices are deeply rooted in the belief that the Great Spirit, or Wakan Tanka, interconnects all of existence.
This profound reverence is embodied in the chanunpa, the sacred pipe, a gift from the White Buffalo Calf Woman, a mythical being who instructed them on its ceremonial use. The tribe’s spirituality is also demonstrated in sacred ceremonies, such as the Sun Dance.
Sacred pipe
The sacred pipe, integrating a stone bowl and wooden stem, symbolizes the unity of Earth, sky, and all living entities. The act of smoking the pipe during the seven sacred rites is an invocation for harmony with the cosmos, wherein each puff is a prayer that ascends to the Great Spirit.
The ceremonies are diverse, each serving a unique but equally important purpose, from soul preservation to purification, vision quests, and expressions of gratitude like the Sun Dance.
Sun Dance
This prominent ritual, conducted in summer, engages the entire community in a celebration of renewal and thanksgiving.
Self-sacrifice for the vision or communal benefit was a profound aspect of this dance, reflecting the core Sioux value – the well-being of the tribe supersedes the individual.
Each ritual reinforces the Sioux’s intricate spiritual relationship with Wakan Tanka, ensuring the sustenance of the universe and the betterment of the tribe.
Chapter 5: Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851
The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, a monumental agreement between the United States and various Native American tribes, marked a significant turning point in the history of the American West.
Escalating conflicts and territorial disputes between migrating tribes, prompted by the westward expansion of European-American settlers, had reached a critical juncture. The United States, recognizing the need to protect its settlers and establish clearer boundaries, initiated negotiations with tribal leaders.
Representatives from the Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Crow Tribe, Shoshone, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara nations convened in September of 1851 at Fort Laramie in present-day Wyoming.
The resulting document delineated specific geographic territories for each tribe, aiming to halt intertribal warfare and ensure a degree of security for the burgeoning flow of settlers heading to the West, particularly for those seeking riches during the California Gold Rush.
Moreover, the treaty recognized the rights of the Native American nations to their hunting grounds and established that the U.S. Government would make annual goods and services payments to the tribes in return for safe passage across their lands.
However, encroaching miners and settlers violated the Treaty, setting the stage for further conflicts, such as the Dakota War of 1862, and the contentious renegotiations that would follow in later years.
Chapter 6: Dakota War of 1862
Within less than a decade following the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, tensions escalated due to blatant infringements upon the agreed terms by settlers and government actions.
The discovery of gold in the Black Hills, a region sacred to the Native Americans and protected by the treaty, exacerbated the conflict. This culminated in the Dakota War of 1862, a tragic and bloody conflict, wherein the Dakota, led by Chief Little Crow, fought fiercely against the U.S. for their rights and territories.
Start of the war
In 1862, when the promised annuity goods were delayed at the Upper Sioux Agency near Redwood, the Dakota faced widespread hunger. Fed up with the broken U.S. promises and starvation, a group of Dakota warriors attacked the Lower Sioux Agency on August 18, 1862.
This act unleashed a wave of violence that spread rapidly, and soon the Sioux, led by their chief Little Crow, engaged in a struggle to reclaim their lands, pushing back against the oppression and incursions by European-American settlers.
For roughly five weeks, the fighting between Dakota warriors and settler militias, along with U.S. troops, raged across southwestern Minnesota, leading to a significant loss of life on both sides.
Key battles during the Dakota War included the following:
- Battle of Fort Ridgely (August 20, 1862). Dakota forces attempted to overtake Fort Ridgely in present-day Minnesota. U.S. forces, vastly outnumbered, repelled numerous attacks, safeguarding the fort.
- Battles of New Ulm (August 19 + 23, 1862). Settlers in New Ulm, largely untrained in combat, bravely withstood two assaults by Dakota forces. The town’s defenses, hastily organized by former Austrian soldier Franz Czeigowitz, held out against a superior number of Dakota warriors until reinforcements arrived.
- Battle of Wood Lake (September 23, 1862). The Battle of Wood Lake marked a pivotal U.S. victory. Under the command of Colonel Henry Sibley, U.S. forces decisively defeated the Dakota, led by Chief Little Crow, effectively signaling the war’s end.
Chapter 7: Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868
In the wake of the Dakota War, a weary but cautious peace descended upon the region. Yet, by 1866, new conflicts arose prompted by the discovery of gold in the Black Hills—an area sacred to the Sioux and promised to them by the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
Government attempts to blaze new trails through Sioux lands for prospectors further incited tensions, leading to Red Cloud’s War. This altercation underscored the inadequacy of prior treaties and ushered in a new series of negotiations that culminated in the second Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868.
Negotiations for the 1868 treaty were arduous, taking place against a backdrop of military hostilities and power struggles. Sioux chiefs, including Red Cloud, Spotted Tail, and others, were among the signatories.
The U.S. government, represented by the Indian Peace Commission, which included notable figures such as General William T. Sherman, aimed to quell hostilities and secure peace without further warfare.
The resulting treaty outlined several substantial agreements, including:
- Ceasing of all hostilities. All conflict between signatory parties of the treaty would stop.
- Establishment of the Great Sioux Reservation. This included all of South Dakota west of the Missouri River, encompassing the sacred Black Hills and additional hunting grounds, providing a significant and defined geographical homeland for the Sioux.
- Provision of specialists to the tribes. The government would provide a physician, teachers, carpenters, engineers, blacksmiths, and other skilled professionals to the tribes.
- Provision of education to the tribes. The U.S. government would provide education for natives ages six to 16 to ensure the civilization of the tribes.
The treaty pledged no encroachment by settlers; however, the discovery of gold in the Black Hills triggered an unrelenting surge of invasions into these sacred lands.
The broken promises and the U.S. government’s hunger for land ignited tensions that would lead to future confrontations, prolonging the period of conflict in this chapter of Sioux history. This treaty would be central to legal battles to reclaim Sioux rights more than a century later.
Chapter 8: Continued wars
Following the tumultuous events of the Dakota War of 1862, the aftermath saw the defeated Dakota people seeking refuge, some joining the Lakota in their territories. However, the conflict was far from over, as continued wars persisted until 1890, becoming known as the Sioux Wars.
The U.S. Department of the Northwest continued to engage in battles against a coalition of Lakota and Dakota warriors throughout 1863 and 1864.
Colonel Henry Sibley, leading a troop strength of around 2,000 soldiers, chased the Dakota deep into the Dakota Territory in 1863. His campaign saw a series of decisive battles which included engagements at Big Mound, Dead Buffalo Lake, and Stony Lake.
Retreating from these defeats, the Dakota faced yet another challenge from General Alfred Sully’s expedition in the subsequent year. General Sully commanded his forces to victory at Killdeer Mountain and the Badlands, quelling the Dakota resistance in these regions.
Conflicts in the area stretched into the late 1860s. As settlers continued to encroach upon Lakota lands, Red Cloud’s War broke out from 1866 to 1868.
Compounding the situation was the American government’s interest in the resource-rich Black Hills, leading to the authorization of military campaigns in 1876 during the Black Hills War, or the Great Sioux War of 1876.
Chapter 9: Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)
The Wounded Knee Massacre, occurring on December 29, 1890, marks a somber and tragic event in American history, symbolizing the culmination of intense conflict between the U.S. government and Native American tribes, specifically the Sioux.
The 7th Cavalry Regiment sought revenge for their historic defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn and was tasked with subduing the Ghost Dance movement—which they inaccurately perceived as a militant revolt. The regiment surrounded an encampment of Lakota Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation.
Under tense conditions, a misfire led to indiscriminate shooting. The cavalrymen, although facing scant armed resistance, employed overwhelming force against the Sioux, including men, women, and children.
By the massacre’s end, estimates place the number of Lakota dead at upwards of several hundred, many of whom were non-combatants. The 7th Cavalry sustained few fatalities.
By 1881, the majority of Sioux forces had capitulated to American military power, and the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890 marked the tragic end to significant Sioux resistance, closing this chapter in Sioux history. Though these events are recorded in history, precise details and citations are needed to enhance the accuracy of this account.
Chapter 10: Assimilation (Early 20th century)
Following the devastating Wounded Knee Massacre, the United States government intensified efforts to disassemble Native American tribes’ communal living arrangements through various legal and social reforms.
Partitioning the Great Sioux Reservation
On the brink of North and South Dakota’s statehood, the Great Sioux Reservation faced partitioning into smaller sectors, despite the resistance of tribal leaders like John Grass, Gall, and Sitting Bull.
The resulting legislation yielded five smaller reservations, opening roughly 9 million acres of the original reservation to public acquisition. This land transition, which primarily came to fruition after 1910, facilitated settler expansion through ranching and homesteading initiatives.
General Allotment Act, or Dawes Act, of 1887
The Dawes Act of 1887 facilitated the cultural assimilation of the Native Tribes by dismantling traditional land systems and parceling tribal land into individual plots. As a result of the Dawes Act, the Dakota and Lakota forfeited roughly 90 million acres.
Boarding schools: Forced assimilation
Federally sanctioned Indian Service schools systematically stripped Dakota and Lakota children of their heritage. The goal—assimilation into Euro-American society—was executed through the prohibition of native languages and customs, enforced wearing of Western attire, and the imposition of European norms.
By design, these boarding schools severed children from their families and culture.
Chapter 11: Returning Native American rights (1930s-1960s)
The next chapter in the history of the Sioux Tribe emerged with the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934. This act represented a crucial shift from assimilation to autonomy for Native American tribes.
It halted the practices of the Dawes Act, stopping land allotments and the seizure of land without consent, and it laid the groundwork for tribal self-governance, including the formulation of tribal constitutions and the management of their own resources.
Despite the gains in sovereignty, federal actions like the construction of the Oahe Dam under the Flood Control Act of 1944 led to the loss of significant tribal lands and left enduring scars on the community.
The following decades witnessed further governmental intervention with the Indian Relocation Act of 1956, promoting the migration of tribal members from reservations to urban environments, precipitating a population decline on some reservations.
The Dakotas’ tribes faced ongoing challenges, such as poverty and the struggle to secure compensation for submerged ancestral lands following the creation of Lake Oahe.
Chapter 12: Legal battles of the 20th century
Throughout the 20th century, the Sioux Nation persistently engaged in legal battles with the U.S. government, advocating for the recognition of their land rights and autonomy.
Below we outline several of the prominent conflicts and legal battles in this chapter of Sioux History.
Black Hills Land Claims
The Sioux Nation has maintained a steadfast refusal to acknowledge the involuntary seizure of the Black Hills. Initiating their legal journey in the 1920s, they persevered through decades until the Supreme Court, in 1980, ruled that the federal government had taken the Black Hills unlawfully, offering a financial settlement.
However, the Sioux remain resolute in their position that the land, which continues to hold profound cultural significance, was never for sale. The compensation, now valued at over a billion dollars, remains unclaimed as a symbol of their unwavering commitment to their land and heritage.
Foster Care System
A dark period of history saw thousands of Native American children forcibly assimilated into Euro-American culture via boarding schools, resulting in a loss of heritage and exposure to abuse.
The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) of 1978 aimed to end this practice by prioritizing the placement of Native children in custody and adoption cases with relatives or tribal members.
Dakota Access Pipeline Protests
The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, supported by a vast alliance of Native and non-Native entities, rallied against the Dakota Access Pipeline in 2016. The oil pipeline posed threats to the tribe’s drinking water, the environment, and cultural sites.
While the pipeline proponents argued it would decrease American dependence on foreign oil and create jobs, the protest gained national momentum and transformed into a broader movement for indigenous rights.
Return of Artifacts
In 2022, the Lakota Sioux experienced the repatriation of 150 sacred artifacts from a Massachusetts museum, a significant yet relatively small victory within the broader effort to see hundreds of thousands of Native American cultural items returned from institutions across the United States.
Chapter 13: Current status of the Sioux Tribe
Today, the Sioux people predominantly live within reservations across the United States, with significant populations on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in Montana, as well as the Standing Rock Reservation in North and South Dakota and the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota.
These sovereign nations work diligently to preserve their culture, uphold traditional values, and promote economic development within their communities. Efforts are directed toward improving healthcare, education, and infrastructure, as well as fostering businesses that align with their cultural ethos.
The Fort Peck Indian Reservation offers visitors an opportunity to immerse themselves in the culture of the local tribes and the natural beauty of the reservation. Top activities include fishing, dinosaur hunting, and annual powwows.
